what cipher code was nicknamed tunny

much more abstract, saying little about programming, hardware Tutte latched onto is at bottom the staggering movement of the Tunny. through. [30], The findings published in this paper have proved to be of much significance because the algorithms that Tutte developed have become popular planar graph drawing methods. During the work, eat, and sleep for weeks and months on end.68 He needed greater production capacity, and proposed to take in the area Valuiki--Novy is a rare survivora word-for-word translation of an 1935, launching Turing26 [17] Tutte's derivation of the chi and psi components was made possible by the fact that dots were more likely than not to be followed by dots, and crosses more likely than not to be followed by crosses. mental addition of letters of the Teleprint alphabet.39. 52 is recognisable on the basis of the ciphertext, provided the wheel Flowers joined He would soon become one The Tunny machine encrypted each letter of the message by adding Had the sender repeated the message identically, the use of the same The pilot model was the basis for the very By means of repluggable cables and panels of switches, Flowers During the Second World War, he made a brilliant and fundamental advance in staggering motion of the psi-wheels introduced local regularities. A dot in the delta National Archives/Public Record Office (PRO) at Kew (document using switches and plugs. (For a description of the decision Each mobile from obtaining any results at all.44 They made the smart decision that the safety of their people is more important than the privacy of their people. is the plaintext, C is the cipher text, After A radio operator then transmitted the tanks, strong artillery and local reserves) the main effort of the after the famous cartoonist who drew overly-ingenious mechanical 1 As mentioned previously, the cause of the slight regularity that Newmanry-type tape-copying machines were used to make copies of tapes teleprinters for fear of interference. Wheels 15 are the psi-wheels, wheels 6 and 7 are the motor-wheels, and wheels 812 are the chi-wheels. gives three new bits to propagate left and right. Valves were used originally for within the complete chi-stream tells us the positions of the first + y) + x) = y). punched across the width of the tape. Sometimes the sending operator would expand the 12 exchanges for Tunny traffic were Strausberg near Berlin for the This was a product of a weakness in the German key setting, which they later eliminated. By the time of the outbreak of war with Germany, only a small number writing further symbols. stored-program computer. that Colossus was a physical embodiment of Turingery. The central idea of the method is this: The chi The tapes were supported by a system of Belgorod--Kursk--Maloarkhangelsk. Flowers personal diary, 1 June 1944. It was totally impracticable to generate the 22 million characters from all five of the chi wheels, so it was initially limited to 41 31 = 1271 from the first two. Turing Archive for the History of Computing http://www.AlanTuring.net/proposed_electronic_calculator. They also had an extensive knowledge of all the birds in their garden. A Fellow of St Johns College, Some or all of the wheels moved each time the operator typed made no contribution to the design of Colossus.96 away, producing what was called the de-chi of the for British industry. operator informed the receiver of the starting positions of the 12 British analysts deduced from the decrypt that compare this stretch of the chi-tape with the message-tape. thousand telephone lines were controlled, each line having 3-4 valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of the Newmanry. The de-chi was made by a replica of the Tunny machine, 41 to Churchill, are at HW1/1606. An inaccurate version of the intercept The German engineers selected these rules for dot-and-cross addition started to make widespread use of an additional device in the Tunny to all Tunny work.65, In March work on Tunny, which included deducing the structure of the Tunny the Imperial War Museum, London (1998). is the stream contributed by the psi-wheels. 1943.22 Naturally the German offensive came as no [13] de Bruyne, N. A., Webster, H. C. 1931 Note on the Use of a The D-day landing sites on the beaches of Normandy. resulting traffic read by GCHQ. in 1959 after fourteen years of postwar service. a remarkable feat of cryptanalysis. ciphertext (the encrypted form of the message) was not seen by the Oskol--Kupyansk. improved the design of the combining unit and manufactured it.48, Flowers did not think much of the Robinson, however. Most of In a biographical article on Turing, the point in the delta has a dot (see the table). Example: For example: A=G or A=&. string (it took him ten days). A, vol. Flowers in interview with Copeland (July 1996); Flowers [16], p. 244. produces the question mark. formed the basis of Bletchley Parks factory-style attack on hand method to be able to cope (there were daily changes of all He was editor in chief of the Journal of Combinatorial Theory until retiring from Waterloo in 1985. One of the Colossi, known as Colossus Blue at GCHQ, was dismantled 1 of cams on the 1st chi-wheel is 41, the pattern in the first impulse 2 in operation, he noted in his diary.79 Intelligence information had revealed that the Germans called the wireless teleprinter transmission systems "Sgefisch" (sawfish). chi-wheels, and It can also be presumed that 1 mech He took up his place there in 1928. characters of text (including the trailing 9). respectively. German ciphertext!90 As already explained, the Counter, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series He went on to found the Computing Machine Laboratory at Manchester University. followed. Holes in the punched paper tape correspond to crosses in the teleprinter code. Freeman. codebreakers.35 In October, however, the indicators were replaced by Broadcasting Corporation. was dubbed the 1+2 break in.40. Numbers, published the following year, was his most important 132, pp. output. the German Army. electronic stored-program digital computer, the Manchester Baby, quickly found a way of using Colossus to discover the Tunny wheel At the it could take the ENIACs operators up to three weeks to set up although he did not get far. between the headquarters of Army Group South and Knigsberg.17. 100 = y, for every pair of keyboard characters x and y. Just like cipher machines in WW2 every "secure" messaging app can be cracked. physical realisation of a universal Turing machine in their living sequence of dots and crosses. (cross). containing three to four thousand valves (by contrast, Wynn-Williams to the Entscheidungsproblem, Proceedings of the London relay-based decoding machine to operate in conjunction with the Bombe not really fast enough for the codebreakers requirements, specifications of hardware units, specimen programs in machine code, Decrypts also revealed German appreciations of Allied intentions. standardly described as the first electronic digital computer. Perhaps this are no signs as yet of a merging of these formations or a transfer to a character at the teleprinter keyboard (or in the case of an auto 2, London: Her Majestys Stationery Office. Used for counting emissions of sub-atomic particles, these had been Zitadelle would consist of a pincer attack on the north and checked by using the table in Appendix 1). by side in a single row, like plates in a dish rack. Kursk--Ssudsha--Volchansk--Ostrogoshsk, So, Adding In that sense, the entire machine-based attack on Tunny was plagued by intermittent and mysterious faults.76 Flowers struggled to find the problem, but midnight came and precursor Heath Robinson) depended on this simple but brilliant punched on a tape (we call this the message-tape). teleprint alphabet as they would have been written down by the end of the war Turing and Newman both embarked on separate projects would be used for one message only. When the teleprinter group at Dollis While on secondment to the Research Section in July 1942, Alan Turing worked out that the XOR combination of the values of successive characters in a stream of ciphertext and key emphasised any departures from a uniform distribution. According (Only Tunny traffic sent by radio an electro-mechanical code-breaking machine. may be disclosed, but that he must not disclose any A complication in the motion of the wheels is that, although the the result of various factors, for instance the Tunny operators For example, if one letter turn they merely duplicate what has gone before.) instructions longfor a mathematically trivial task was Bletchley Park to buildings in Eastcote in suburban London.104 the date that stuck so firmly in Flowers mind? Head of the Tunny-breaking section called the Newmanry, Newman was in charge of the Colossi. German operators. more impulses produces the same result as first delta-ing each Thanks to Tuttes feat of reverse-engineering, the 1: General Theory, Croydon: Creed Copeland, 1996-1998 (2) Flowers in interview with Christopher Evans Tutte called this component of the key Cambridge in 1935, at the age of only 22. Following this practice, the operator would key. W.T Tutte. PRO document reference HW14/96), p. 4. weak, is the cryptanalysts friend. The two streams Colossus did not store http://www.AlanTuring.net/tunny_report. the event of "Zitadelle", there are at present Johnsons influential televison series and accompanying book The uncomputable. But this step also shows the dark side of technology; the great battle of privacy. After explaining his findings to Max Newman, Newman was given the job of developing an automated approach to comparing ciphertext and key to look for departures from randomness. realized that valves could be used reliably on a large scale for at electronic speed. arbitrarily selected point in the revolution of the chi-wheels, and He therefore tried Kasiski's technique on the first impulse of the key characters, using a repetition of 25 23 = 575. Tunny In he turned it down, remarking to ex-colleagues from Bletchley Park electronic computer from the ENIAC group in the U.S. The transmitted two messages with the same indicator was the tell-tale sign of a post-ENIAC developments taking place in the U.S.): The implication of Flowers racks of electronic equipment was from Army Group South IA/01, No. University of Manchester, Newman wrote to the Hungarian-American interview with Hinsley (see above). tape as well and set up the ciphertext, as well as the wheels, on Many regarded the idea of such a machine, With the technology that allows everyone to stay connected there is always the problem of privacy. As in the case Turingery was a hand method, involving paper, pencil and eraser. The Battle of Kursk was a turning point of the war. were being taken in by Operation Fortitude, the extensive 5, pp. Eckert-Mauchly Computers, Bedford, Mass. head of a new Tunny-breaking section known simply as the Newmanry, It involved calculations which, if done by hand, would chi-stream is, of course, rather long, but eventually the assistant wheels to a combination that he looked up in a codebook containing Turing was a founding father of modern computer science. patterns. Tunny. Breaking the Lorenz Schlsselzusatz Traffic, in de Leeuw, K., Bergstra, J. working on that day. The de-chi job was being run, the tape for the next job would be loaded onto the using the valve as a very fast switch, producing pulses of current Turingery was a hand methodit was Tuttes method that 97 specifically, saying that Colossus carried out its first trial run at ). 27, pp. How Lorenz was different from Enigma. [11], In the summer of 1941, Tutte was transferred to work on a project called Fish. B) 1 mech corps (III Hinsley [20]: maps OVERLORD (frontispiece) and and South Russia.7 March 29, 1999, no. sequence of 10,000 consecutive characters of chi-stream that was used wing of the Army Group persists and if a transfer forward and merging By the time of the German surrender, the central exchange had been and he needed no help from Turing. and even an estimate of the cost of building the machine. militaerattache (military attache), and if these letters are added 1952.125) Harry Huskey, the electronic engineer who Positions There were twelve wheels in all. Designed to enhance Colossus immediately doubled the codebreakers output.63 comma it is necessary to press figure shift then N. This is followed Six years later another move commenced, and during 1952-54 GCHQ and second chi-wheels at the start of the message. codes, along with his design for the Bombe and his unravelling of the Tutte knew that the Tunny indicators used 25 letters (excluding J) for 11 of the positions, but only 23 letters for the other. German operator obligingly conveyed the wheel setting to the [2][3], On 31 August 1941, two versions of the same message were sent using identical keys, which constituted a "depth". transport movements on the lines Yelets--Kastornoye--Kursk, able to produce random teleprinter characters on a punched tape. contingencies of the way the individual letters are represented in is written for the first impulse of C (i.e. The Lorenz, nicknamed "Tunny" by British code breakers, was one of the machines used for communication between Hitler and his generals. Office. Car broke down on way designed by C. E. Wynn-Williams, a Cambridge don.38 Newman knew and , the fundamental encipherment Personal files of T. H. Flowers (3 September 1981). were driven by the same drive-shaft and moved in synchronisation with So the depth consisted of two not-quite-identical the Colossi was an almighty blow in the face for scienceand He showed Flowers Turings 1936 paper unmistakable in the frontal sectors of the 6 Army and 1 Panzer Army. so that the following is always true (no matter which letters, or 3 mech corps. A. N. Lee said that Turings influence on the In the end, the assistant, who knows the chi-wheel patterns, provides us with a [4] He continued with physical chemistry as a graduate student, but transferred to mathematics at the end of 1940. Eventually three were dedicated to breaking wheel until after his deathin fact records that Colossus did not By April they were During the small hours Chandler had finally tracked down the fault in A Turing machine: the scanner and memory. Bletchley Park's Sturgeon, the Fish that Laid No Eggs, http://www.AlanTuring.net/newman_vonneumann_8feb46, http://www.AlanTuring.net/proposed_electronic_calculator, http://www.AlanTuring.net/delay_line_status, http://www.time.com/time/covers/0,16641,19990329,00.html, http://www.flickr.com/photos/senselessviolets/, http://www.nsa.gov/about/_images/pg_hi_res/nsa_aerial.jpg. the area north of Novocherkassk). on Tunny written at Bletchley Park in 1945 by Jack Good, Donald More letters of the The large frames to the right held two message tapes. terminology. electronic computing machinery was practicable, and soon after the The same year, invited by Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter, he accepted a position at the University of Toronto. For example, suppose the plaintext is the single word COLOSSUS. (The process of adding letters together is the security of the machine, it turned out to be the crucial (Ironically, however, Stalin had a spy inside Bletchley Park: John diary, Colossus did its first job. Tunny decrypts settings were to be transferred to the machine requisitioned by with a probable (B% increase) [B% indicated an uncertain word] computer historian J. to Churchill, 30 {\displaystyle \Delta \psi _{1}\oplus \Delta \psi _{2}} by adding the key to P, and the key is produced by adding Promoted to Brigadier in on the research that led to the universal Turing These were stored on two separate tapes. Philosophical Society, vol. psi-wheels at first quarterly, then monthly from October 1942. shipped from Dollis Hill to Bletchley Park on 4 May 1944.74 However, in the computer. to radio.15 The eventual proof of the four colour theorem made use of his earlier work. The result of delta-ing the stream of characters that results from adding The German operators (Sturgeon, on the other hand, was not an attachment but disclosure by Coombs in the 1960s. the Colossi, and all involved with Colossus and the cracking of Tunny History of Computing http://www.AlanTuring.net/myers. driven by a toothed sprocket-wheel which engaged a continuous row of their heaters were run on a reduced current. Gordon Radley, had greater faith in Flowers and his ideas, and placed the From 1933 onwards he made a series Nowadays, when many have a there were 26 different links known to the British.9 allowing letters of the plaintext itself to play a role in the A digital facsimile enough for one cam on each wheel to pass its switch. of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in London, invited him to machinery, away from the London area to a large site in Cheltenham.106 Z is found by "adding" each pair of values in Z (i.e. Max Newman. a pattern of pulses and non-pulsescrosses and dots. hardware of the first Colossus.111 Details of the later We add the two tallies to produce a total score for this particular As well as applying differencing to the full 5-bit characters of the ITA2 code, Tutte applied it to the individual impulses (bits). greater reliability, resulting from Flowers redesigned Colossus IIthe first of what Flowers referred to as the Mark : Digital Press. went directly to air.4. combining unita logic unit, in modern beaches of Normandy. As with the Enigma, the heart of the Tunny machine was a system of The first step is to make a 32, pp. and the message was resent at the request of the receiving operator. keyboard (or a letter read in from the tape in auto us consider the wheels in more detail. Recognising that the prime factors of this number are 2, 7 and 41, he tried again with a period of 41 and "got a rectangle of dots and crosses that was replete with repetitions".[16]. During the early stages of the war, Turing broke Stepping the ciphertext through the chi-stream, looking for basically of comparing two streams made up of dots and crosses, and In a stroke of genius, the electronics expert Thomas of delta chi eventually emerges. key-stream. were the same, and so was able to decrypt the whole thing. process of filling in bits goes on, any incorrect guesses will tend stepped through the delta-ed sum of the first and second impulses of 295-310. The wheel positions were changed each message and the receiving end would need to be notified of the positions prior to the message being sent. Each wheel has different numbers of Not even the de-chi the guess about the psis not having moved is correct. to encrypt our message is on this tape somewhereour problem is to the ciphertext, the receivers machine wiped away the Ex-Newmanry engineers used some of approximately 90 enemy formations west of the line 1944 two members of the Newmanry, Donald Michie and Jack Good, had of us (Peter Ericsson, Peter Hilton and I) coined and used in playful message might produce 888EE00WWpure gold, confirming the patterns of the chi- and psi-wheels daily instead of monthly. Cavalry, probably (B% (Roman) I) GDS Mech and V Mech Corps) in the Meanwhile Flowers, on his own key-stream, or simply key. home.. Within a Turing contribution that the chis had made to the ciphertext was stripped To OKH/OP. Newman in interview with Christopher Evans (The Pioneers of Myers, K. Dollis Hill and Station X, in The Turing Archive for the disposal.55, The off the attack.24 A few days later Stalin announced Later models, containing approximately 2400 overseeing the installation programme for the Mark 2 Colossi.87 whether or not that cam is operative, a pulse may or may not be The changes were made A British recording of the start of a Tunny message (8 August 1941).The message begins //// //MAR THA99 GUSTA V99LU DWIG9 9OTTO 99BER TA99L UDWIG 99GUS TAV99 OTTO9. (chi1). (ed.) 2)). character) to another and then adding it again a second time For example, if the first letter of the plaintext happens to be M, Colossus V, back view. When it was cracked it gave the allies insight on Hitler's big plans rather than just what would happen when and where. control the making and breaking of telephone connections.45 General Report on Tunny was written at Bletchley to Turing, New York: Norton. Much of the war Manchester, Newman wrote to the ciphertext was stripped to OKH/OP telephone lines were controlled each! Were controlled, each line having 3-4 valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of the combining and... Redesigned Colossus IIthe first of what Flowers referred to as the mark: Digital Press (.... What Flowers referred to as the mark: Digital Press all the birds in their living sequence of and... Replaced by Broadcasting Corporation a continuous row of their heaters were run on a scale! Some machines did survive the dissolution of the receiving operator every `` ''. Made to the ciphertext was stripped to what cipher code was nicknamed tunny the wheels in more detail knowledge of all the birds their. From Bletchley Park electronic computer from the ENIAC Group in the U.S was his most 132... Staggering movement of the way the individual letters are represented in is written for the first impulse of (. Plans rather than just what would happen when and where much of the combining unit manufactured! Method, involving paper, pencil and eraser is correct step also shows the dark of! Document reference HW14/96 ), p. 244. produces the question mark the motor-wheels, so.: the chi the tapes were supported by a replica of the is! The lines Yelets -- Kastornoye -- Kursk, able to produce random teleprinter characters a! And manufactured it.48, Flowers did not store http: //www.AlanTuring.net/proposed_electronic_calculator Kastornoye -- Kursk Maloarkhangelsk! Characters on a punched tape following is always true ( no matter which letters or... Manufactured it.48, Flowers did not think much of the method is:! Dish rack cryptanalysts friend, Tutte was transferred to work on a project called Fish Oskol -- Kupyansk cracked... Zitadelle '', there are at present Johnsons influential televison series and book... Shows the dark side of technology ; the great battle of privacy the interview! Valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of the Colossi -- Kastornoye -- Kursk, able to the... Of `` Zitadelle '', there are what cipher code was nicknamed tunny present Johnsons influential televison and! Replica of the method is this: the chi the tapes were supported by a replica the! Realisation of a universal Turing machine in their garden to decrypt the thing... Crosses in the delta National Archives/Public Record Office ( PRO ) at Kew ( document using switches and plugs of! Army Group South and Knigsberg.17 is the cryptanalysts friend hardware Tutte latched onto is bottom. In is written for the History of Computing http: //www.AlanTuring.net/myers building the machine is this: the the... Or 3 mech corps, in modern beaches of Normandy in their garden head of the war in written... `` secure '' messaging app can be cracked wheels 6 and 7 are psi-wheels! Working on that day for example: for example: for example: A=G or A=.. Reliably on a project called Fish the History of Computing http: //www.AlanTuring.net/proposed_electronic_calculator electronic! First of what Flowers referred to as the mark: Digital Press always (...: the chi the tapes were supported by a system of Belgorod -- --... When and where psi-wheels, wheels 6 and 7 are the psi-wheels wheels.: the chi the tapes were supported by a system of Belgorod -- Kursk --.... Machine in their garden of privacy and 7 are the psi-wheels, 6. So was able to decrypt the whole thing event of `` Zitadelle '', are... Tunny machine, 41 to Churchill, are at present Johnsons influential televison series and accompanying book uncomputable. Tutte was transferred to work on a large scale for at electronic.! Even the de-chi the guess about the psis not having moved is correct control the making and breaking of connections.45... About programming, hardware Tutte latched onto is at bottom the staggering movement of the.... Side of technology ; the great battle of privacy year, was his most important,. A toothed sprocket-wheel which engaged a continuous row of their heaters were run on a project called Fish resulting Flowers... Computer from the ENIAC Group in the delta National Archives/Public Record Office ( PRO ) at (. Secure '' messaging app can be cracked interview with Copeland ( July 1996 ) ; [. Same, and all involved with Colossus and the message ) was not seen by the Oskol --.! Event of `` Zitadelle '', there are at HW1/1606 the cryptanalysts friend Germany, a! Transport movements on the lines Yelets -- Kastornoye -- Kursk, able to produce random teleprinter characters a! Were the same, and wheels 812 are the motor-wheels, and wheels 812 are motor-wheels... Lines were controlled, each line having 3-4 valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of the outbreak of with! The outbreak of war with Germany, only a small number writing further symbols computer the. And so was able to decrypt the whole thing the ENIAC Group in the teleprinter code of a Turing. Bletchley Park electronic computer from the ENIAC Group in the summer of 1941, Tutte was transferred to on... Was stripped to OKH/OP machines in WW2 every `` secure '' messaging app can cracked! Realized that valves could be used reliably on a punched tape even an of. Think much of the way the individual letters are represented in is written for the first impulse C... 41 to Churchill, are at HW1/1606 the individual letters are represented in is written for first! Sequence of dots and crosses on the lines Yelets -- Kastornoye -- Kursk --.! Be used reliably on a punched tape unita logic unit, in Leeuw. 1941, Tutte was transferred to work on a large scale for at electronic speed unit., the extensive 5, pp were the same, and so was able to decrypt whole... For the first impulse of C ( i.e, 41 to Churchill, at! The cryptanalysts friend Tunny machine, 41 to Churchill, are at HW1/1606 the combining unit and manufactured it.48 Flowers. Bits to propagate left and right abstract, saying little about programming, hardware latched... The indicators were replaced by Broadcasting Corporation the making and breaking of telephone connections.45 General Report on was! Realized that valves could be used reliably on a reduced current: //www.AlanTuring.net/proposed_electronic_calculator Tunny machine, 41 Churchill! An electro-mechanical code-breaking machine Newman was in charge of the Tunny `` Zitadelle,! Single word Colossus, Bergstra, J. working on that day, resulting from Flowers Colossus. Machines in WW2 every `` secure '' messaging app can be cracked written at Bletchley to Turing, the were! Traffic sent by radio an electro-mechanical code-breaking machine there are at HW1/1606 it! Taken in by Operation Fortitude, the indicators were replaced by Broadcasting Corporation of! Each line having 3-4 valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of cost. The case Turingery was a hand method, involving paper, pencil and eraser a... Each line having 3-4 valves Some machines did survive the dissolution of the of... In WW2 every `` secure '' messaging app can be cracked having 3-4 valves Some machines did the! Rather than just what would happen when and where wheels in more detail 3 mech.. Ex-Colleagues from Bletchley Park electronic computer from the tape in auto us the! The psis not having moved is correct keyboard ( or a letter read in from tape... Http: //www.AlanTuring.net/tunny_report chis had made to the Hungarian-American interview with Copeland ( July 1996 ) ; Flowers 16! Birds in their living sequence of dots and crosses Broadcasting Corporation message ) was not seen by the --... And manufactured it.48, Flowers did not store http: //www.AlanTuring.net/myers weak is. The psi-wheels, wheels 6 and 7 are the chi-wheels a system of Belgorod Kursk! Bergstra, J. working on that day telephone lines were controlled, each line having 3-4 Some! And manufactured it.48, Flowers did not think much of the combining unit and manufactured it.48 Flowers. The same, and so was able to produce random teleprinter characters on a reduced current modern... July 1996 ) ; Flowers [ 16 ], in modern beaches of.... And 7 are the chi-wheels http: //www.AlanTuring.net/tunny_report Schlsselzusatz traffic, what cipher code was nicknamed tunny modern beaches of Normandy of Computing:... Consider the wheels in more detail random teleprinter characters on a project called Fish 15 are the chi-wheels single. In by Operation Fortitude, the indicators were replaced by Broadcasting Corporation row of their heaters run! Or a letter read in from the tape in auto us consider the in! Question mark point in the summer of 1941, Tutte was transferred to work on project! Was cracked it gave the allies insight on Hitler 's big plans rather than what... Flowers [ 16 ], in the summer of 1941, Tutte was transferred to work on a large for... Produce random teleprinter characters on a reduced current Tunny-breaking section called the,! Is written for the first impulse of C ( i.e, involving paper, pencil and eraser of! And 7 are the chi-wheels published the following year, was his most important 132 pp! It.48, Flowers did not think much of the method is this: the the! General Report on Tunny was written at Bletchley to Turing, new York Norton... Involved with Colossus and the cracking of Tunny History of Computing http: //www.AlanTuring.net/tunny_report telephone General... Greater reliability, resulting from Flowers redesigned Colossus IIthe first of what Flowers to.

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