retirement benefits for members of congress

This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. Congressional members are eligible for their own unique pension plans under the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS), though there are other retirement benefits available, ranging from Social Security and the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). Currently, members of Congress are eligible for a pension dependent on the member's age at retirement, length of service, and salary. The pension value can be up to 80% of the member's final salary. Since 2009 Congressional pay has been $174,000 per year, which, at an 80% rate, equates to a lifelong pension benefit of $139,200. All benefits are taxpayer-funded. 11/15/2022 at 8:45 am. beginning january 1, 2013, there is no longer a larger employee contribution under fers required for members and congressional employees in comparison with regular fers employees; all of these groups contribute 3.1% of basic pay toward their fers annuity if first covered after december 31, 2012, or 4.4% of basic pay if first covered by fers after Members are eligible for a pension at age 50 if they have completed 20 years of service, or at any age after completing 25 years of service. Read reviews from world's largest community for readers. English Deutsch Franais Espaol Portugus Italiano Romn Nederlands Latina Dansk Svenska Norsk Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Trke Suomi Latvian Lithuanian esk . 01/18/2023, 41 842.105 also issued under 5 U.S.C. ThoughtCo. on The exact amount will depend on your individual needs. 842.707 also issued under Sec. 8422, is an employee or Member covered under FERS hired on or after January 1, 2014, unless the employee or Member, (1) was covered under FERS on December 31, 2012; or. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. documents in the last year, 16 These amendments also required all Members of Congress to participate in Social Security as of January 1, 1984, regardless of when they first entered Congress. L. 110-161, 121 Stat. Given Members of Congress starting contributing to Social Security in 1984, FERS was designed to supplement Social Security retirement benefits. Should I Care? CSRS Offset. In this Issue, Documents These benefits are generally the same as other federal employees would receive. Congress also has the unique position of determining its own benefits without having to worry about turning a profita private company may have to freeze its pension plan or perform a buyout if it experiences balance sheet problems, but the U.S. Congress must only appropriate tax dollars. "Types of Contributions: Agency/Service Automatic (1%) Contributions. FERS provides a monthly retirement annuity based on an employee's age, years of federal service, and highest three consecutive years of salary. About the Federal Register By law, the starting amount of a Members retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of his The rumor that members of Congress can retire with the same pay after only one term has been making its way through the email chains of disgruntled citizens for years, along with the mistruth that congress members don't need to pay off their student loans. Retired members of Congress receive the same COLAs as other federal employees who retired under the same retirement system. http://www.regulations.gov. Is Your Defined-Benefit Pension Plan Safe? Getting health insurance on par with or . 8415. It is also referred to as a company pension plan. documents in the last year, 876 Sign up for the POPVOX daily "What's Up Washington", GAVEL DOWN: Closing out the Week in Congress (May 1-5, 2017), GAVEL DOWN: Closing out the Week in Congress (May 8-12, 2017), [UPDATED] Q & A: Whats next for the health, Q & A: Can the President dissolve an appeals, 344 retired under CSRS were receivingaverage annual pension of $74,136, 276 retired under FERS were receiving an average annual pension of $41,316. "State Balanced Budget Requirements.". 2022-24875 Filed 11-15-22; 8:45 am], updated on 4:15 PM on Tuesday, January 17, 2023, updated on 8:45 AM on Tuesday, January 17, 2023, 142 documents are not part of the published document itself. 2135; Secs. The salary and benefits paid to the Senators and Representatives of the U.S. Congress is a constant source of public fascination, debate, and most of all, fake news. ", Congressional Research Service. The general policy for comments and other submissions from members of the public is to make these submissions available for public viewing at A bill to provide that the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House of Representatives shall include an estimate of Federal retirement benefits for each Member of Congress in their semiannual reports, and for other purposes. "The Last Private Industry Pension Plans: A Visual Essay.". Prior to 1984, neither federal civil service e. "Press Release - Spectrem Groups 2019 Market Insights Report Reveals 10th Consecutive Annual Increase in Wealthy American Households - March 12, 2019. Longley, Robert. L. 101-508, 104 Stat. It is not an official legal edition of the Federal Members are allowed an amount of permissible "outside earned income" limited to no more than 15% of the annual rate of basic pay for level II of the Executive Schedule for federal employees, or $28,845.00 a year in 2018. However, there is currently no limit on the amount of non-salary income members can retain from their investments, corporate dividends or profits. 801 842.703 also issued under Sec. "The State of American Retirement. Members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, and members of the Senate serve six-year terms. documents in the last year, 274 Retirement pay for Congress is not normally a big election-year issue, but it might serve as evidence of a disconnect between lawmakers and mainstream America. The state legislatures adjusted their congressmens pay and could even suspend it completely if they became dissatisfied with them. Their retirement benefits depend on their plan, age and time served in Congress. The raise takes effect automatically on January 1 of each year unless Congress, through the passage of a joint resolution, votes to decline it, as Congress has done since 2009. Employee Benefits Survey: Establishments Offering Retirement and Healthcare Benefits. Prior to the passage of the Affordable Care Act, insurance for members of Congress was provided through the Federal Employees Health Benefits Program (FEHB); the governments employer-subsidized private insurance system. Nearly nine in 10 families in the top 20% of income earners contribute to retirement savings accounts. Health. "Frequently Asked Questions. 12866. 11202(f), 11232(e), and 11246(b) of Pub. "Net Worth of Households: 2016. Because the CSRS was not designed to coordinate with Social Security, Congress directed the development of a new retirement plan for federal workers. Where, When, and Why Does the US Congress Meet? publication in the future. The President of the United States manages the operations of the Executive branch of Government through Executive orders. While politicians hold their political positions in the safe confines of the capital, protected by these same men and women, and receive full pay retirement after serving 1 term!, However, members of the House and the Senate are not able to collect their full salaries as pensions when they retire, according to a CRS report updated in August 2019. "Congressional Salaries and Allowances: In Brief." Unfortunately, the once-promising 401(k) era failed to live up to its promise after unrealized gains were wiped out by the 20002001 and 20072009 recessions, though some of the lost retirement wealth from 2009 recovered quickly. The current base salary for all rank-and-file members of the U.S. House and Senate is $174,000 per year, plus benefits. Salaries have not been increased since 2009. There have been several motions, particularly from a few Senate Republicans, to cut higher pension contributions and change the health care benefits for federal employees since 2008. Members who have completed a total of 20 years of service are eligible for a pension at age 50, are at any age after completing a total of 25 years of service. ", Economic Policy Institute. the Federal Register. 841.507 also issued under section 505 of Pub. Additionally, members of Congress enjoy the same Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) as all other federal employees, which is similar to a 401(k). More taxpayer funds are used to match Congressional contributions up to 5% per year, in addition to an extra 1% giveaway regardless of how much the congressman or congresswoman contributes, if anything. Because members of Congress earn far more than the average American citizen, their initial Social Security benefits average just under $26,000 per year compared to $17,652 for the average retired worker in 2019. . They can earn up to 80% of their final salary, though this high percentage rarely occurs. (CRS). As a result, each member of Congress is required to direct 1.3% of their salary to the Federal Employees' Retirement Scheme, while 6.2% of the salary is deducted as Social Security taxes. In addition to finances, you need to think about when and where you'll retire. For Senator Franken, it will be about $26,000/year. Members of Congress are eligible for a pension at age 62 (with at least five years of service), age50 (with at least twenty years of service), or at any age (after25 years of service). This CRS Report has you covered. Greater than 80% of American employees who worked for large companies in the private sector contributed to a pension plan. Ask us anythingand see your questions answered. Is vacation a fringe benefit? provide legal notice to the public or judicial notice to the courts. That law was repealed just two months later in response . A thrift savings plan (TSP) is a retirement investment program open only to federal employees and members of the uniformed services. Once they retire, they can go through the federal employee health plan -- but would still pay a percentage of the premiums. The result was the Federal Employees' Retirement System Act of 1986. A retirement contribution is a payment into a retirement plan, either pretax or after-tax. U.S. Census Bureau. For example, members of Congress have access to the federal Thrift Savings Plan. http://www.regulations.gov To collect any retirement benefits, a member of congress must have served a minimum of 5 years and then must also meet one of the following requirements: *A U.S. Congress member who has served fewer than 20 years must be at least 62 years of age to be eligible to collect any retirement benefits. The following paragraph excerpted from the Congressional Research Service PDF document called Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress by Katelin P. Isaacs provides some idea of how much the pensions are for former Vice Presidents, Cabinet members, members of Congress and other federal officials. 8417; Sec. Sean Ross is a strategic adviser at 1031x.com, Investopedia contributor, and the founder and manager of Free Lances Ltd. David Kindness is a Certified Public Accountant (CPA) and an expert in the fields of financial accounting, corporate and individual tax planning and preparation, and investing and retirement planning. The 2012 Act decreased the FERS benefit accrual rate used in the FERS annuity calculation for congressional employees or Members first covered by FERS (or reelected with less than five years of FERS service) after December 31, 2012. on NARA's archives.gov. Salaries have not been increased since 2009. When you visit the site, Dotdash Meredith and its partners may store or retrieve information on your browser, mostly in the form of cookies. Those with 30 years of service can retire at 55. OPM's proposed rule amends the CFR to reflect these changes. The minimum age at which a member of Congress can collect Social Security retirement benefits is 62. After serving five years in Congress, former members become eligible to collect a pension. Agencies review all submissions and may choose to redact, or withhold, certain submissions (or portions thereof). documents in the last year, 1401 Members elected after 1984 are covered by theFederal Employees Retirement System (FERS). 842.110 also issued under Sec. The claim that members of Congress can collect full-pay retirement benefits after serving just one term has circulated online for nearly two decades, according to Snopes. Members of Congress and congressional staff will be subject to the same rules of participation in the FEHB Program in retirement as other Federal annuitants. Of course, they were also not eligible to receive Social Security benefits. Under both CSRS and FERS, Members of Congress are eligible for a pension at the age of 62 if they have completed at least five years of service. documents in the last year, 90 535(d) of Title V of Division E of Pub. 3. Members of Congress and Congressional Employees. For example, the. As it is for all other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. "Retirement Benefits: Access, Participation, and Take-Up Rates. Those mass emails also claim that members of Congress can get a pension equal to their full salaries after serving only one term. legal research should verify their results against an official edition of offers a preview of documents scheduled to appear in the next day's Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation. The $6 per-day rate remained the same until the Compensation Act of 1816 raised it to a flat $1,500 a year. New Documents documents in the last year, 28 The 1983 amendments to the Social Security Act required federal employees first hired after 1983 to participate in Social Security. Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress Description. My Employer Doesn't Offer a 401(k). 8402(c)(1) and 7701(b)(2); Sec. For the 2017 plan year, there were 57 plan optionsin the gold tier on the DC SHOP. May 8, 2017 Funding for employee pension programs, both public and private, can also be challenging. (They are eligible at earlier ages with more years of service.). "Today, we stand united in demanding moral and legal justice for the thousands of retirees who have yet to see some or all of their pensions. This legislative branch agency works exclusively for Members . These can be useful The CSRS pension plan is slightly more generous than the FERS plan. Members are not allowed to retain compensation arising from fiduciary relationships, except for medical practices. For example, House Rule XXV (112th Congress) limits permissible outside income to "salaries, fees, and other amounts received or to be received as compensation for personal services actually rendered." For the Members under the CSRS plan, the average pension Is $74,000/year. The federal retirement program is funded partly by the public through taxes, and partly through the contributions of the federal employees. Pensions for most members are far less than that. Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) Employees can contribute to the before-tax or after-tax Roth Thrift Savings Plan (TSP), similar to a 401 (k) plan, for retirement. Want more details on the Congressional health benefits? (3) if not covered under FERS on December 31, 2012, performed at least 5 years of civilian service creditable or potentially creditable under FERS prior to December 31, 2012. For the bottom 20%, that ratio drops to below one in 10. Follow the instructions for submitting comments. What Are Qualified Retirement Plan Types? Congressional health benefits documents in the last year, 117 Jan 11, 2023, 7:45 AM. 66-215) established a pension system for federal employees in the executive branch of government. Members pay Social Security payroll taxes equal to 6.2% Social Security taxes and contribute to the Civil Service Retirement and Disability Fund (CSRDF). / CBS Minnesota. Because of the uncertain tenure of congressional service, the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) was originally designed, as CSRS had been, to provide a larger benefit for each year of service to Members of Congress or congressional employees than to most other federal employees. L. 99-591, 100 Stat. GAO found that: (1) CSRS provisions for congressional members are generally more generous than those for general employees; (2) Members of Congress, law enforcement officers, firefighters, and air traffic controllers may retire at a younger age and with fewer years of service L. 104-134, 110 Stat. 2042; Sec. Congressional Research Service, 11 Apr. Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees' Retirement System (FERS). L. 105-274, 112 Stat. on Cash Balance Pension Plan: Overview, Pros and Cons, and FAQ, What Is a Pension? The military now has two primary retirement systems: the newly established Blended Retirement System and the Legacy Retirement . Pros and Cons of Rolling Your Pension Into a Roth IRA, Rise, Fall and Complexities of the Defined-Benefit Plan. The claim: Congressional benefits include 'free health care, outrageous retirement packages, 67 paid holidays, three weeks paid vacation, unlimited paid sick days' As inflation spikes amid the. 842.109 also issued under Sec. Of course, every member of Congress has several retirement plans, and their defined benefits are not negatively impacted by stock market recessions. to the courts under 44 U.S.C. should verify the contents of the documents against a final, official This repetition of headings to form internal navigation links 4. . 842.107 also issued under Secs. by the Farm Credit System Insurance Corporation informational resource until the Administrative Committee of the Federal Presidential Retirement Benefits and Pension, How Vacancies in the US Congress are Filled, About the Legislative Branch of U.S. Government, Legislative Powers of the President of the United States, Top Federal Benefit and Assistance Programs. Retirement Benefits: Access, Participation, and Take-Up Rates. "Members of Congress are eligible for a pension at the age of 62 if they have completed at least 5 years of service," the report states. Since all provisions of the Affordable Care Act or Obamacare took effect in 2014, members of Congress have been required to purchase health insurance plans offered through one of the Affordable Care Act-approved exchanges in order to receive a government contribution toward their health coverage. To remedy this, the House passed another bill just before the AHCA vote, which removes the exemption for members of Congress and staff. Well, that's also a myth. 804) to be submitted to Congress before taking effect. While every effort has been made to ensure that "One Member of Congress = 18 American Households: Lawmakers Personal Finances Far From Average. The Future Financial Status of the Social Security Program, Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress. L. 99-335; subpart J also issued under 5 U.S.C. tampering with a witness, victim, or an informant; racketeer influenced and corrupt organizations; conspiracy to commit an offense or to defraud the United States. Other perks include fitness centers (or fitness center discounts), employee meals, cafeteria plans, dependent care assistance, and retirement plan contributions. ", Pension Rights Center. To collect their full pensions, congressmen must either be at least 62, be at least 50 with 20 years of service or have 25 years . of the issuing agency. 842.213 also issued under 5 U.S.C. Whether or not a Members resigns, retires or is voted out of office does not affect his or her pension. Investopedia requires writers to use primary sources to support their work. Under federal law, they do not receive pensions equal to full pay, according to the Congressional Research Service (CRS). 401(k) vs. Pension Plan: Whats the Difference? Retirement Benefits for Members of Congress Congressional Research Service 3 FERS is composed of three elements: Social Security, the FERS basic annuity, a monthly pension based on years of service and the average of the three highest consecutive years of basic pay, "The Recession Hurt Americans' Retirement Accounts More Than Anybody Knew. Changes in U.S. Family Finances from 2010 to 2013: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances, The Last Private Industry Pension Plans: A Visual Essay. on Up until 1984, federal employees (including Members of Congress) did not pay Social Security taxes or receive Social Security benefits but were instead covered by the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS). L. 104-8, 109 Stat. Robert Longley is a U.S. government and history expert with over 30 years of experience in municipal government and urban planning. Electronic: (i) FERS FRAE employee, Member, or Congressional employee is ten and six-tenths percent basic pay, minus the percent of tax which is (or would be) in effect for the payment, for the employee cost of social security. As of October 1, 2006, 413 retired Members of Congress were receiving federal pensions based fully or in part on their congressional service. edition of the Federal Register. They also have a Thrift Savings Plan, similar to a 401(K), in which the military matches contributions up to a certain percentage after two years of service, per the Department of Defense webpage on pensions. Members of Congress receive retirement and health benefits under the same plans available to other federal employees. THE FACTS: A post circulating on Facebook attempts to contrast what people who serve in the U.S military for 20 years . Where listings appear, certain submissions ( or portions thereof ) member of Congress receive retirement and health benefits in... ( CRS ) they became dissatisfied with them of Rolling your pension into a retirement investment program open only federal! For 20 years may choose to redact, or withhold, certain submissions ( or portions thereof ) congressmens and! Plan year, 117 Jan 11, 2023, 7:45 AM to receive Social Security Congress... Members under the same COLAs as other federal employees same until the compensation Act of 1986 they do not pensions... ) Contributions savings accounts their congressmens pay and could even suspend it if. Dividends or profits, Pros and Cons, and their defined benefits are generally the same other... Plans available to other federal employees and members of the federal employees ' retirement System retirement benefits for members of congress the '... Allowed to retain compensation arising from fiduciary relationships, except for medical practices a new plan. Does n't Offer a 401 ( k ) that members of Congress can collect Social Security in,! The average pension is $ 74,000/year months later in response 20 % of income earners contribute retirement! Receive Social Security, Congress directed the development of a new retirement for! Are eligible at earlier ages with more years of service can retire 55! Benefits are generally the same plans available to other federal employees those mass emails claim! Facts: a Visual Essay. `` Executive orders or withhold, submissions... The compensation Act of 1986 a final, official this repetition of headings to form internal navigation links 4. to... Contributions: Agency/Service Automatic ( 1 ) and 7701 ( b ) Pub! 5 U.S.C When, and Take-Up Rates 's final salary Cash Balance plan... Dissatisfied with them may impact how and where you & # x27 ; s largest community for readers benefits generally! Sources to support their work plans, and Take-Up Rates service can retire at 55 and their defined benefits not!, Congress directed the development of a new retirement plan for federal retirement benefits for members of congress and Healthcare benefits ; Sec members far! Think about When and where listings appear the public or judicial notice to the federal retirement program funded! Are eligible at earlier ages with more years of service can retire at 55 pensions equal to their full after! 1816 raised it to a flat $ 1,500 a year to full pay, according to the.! Security benefits Healthcare benefits retirement program is funded through taxes, and partly through the federal employees k... A payment into a retirement investment program open only to federal employees ' retirement System Act of 1816 raised to! As a company pension plan e of Pub serve in the U.S military for 20.., corporate dividends or profits go through the federal employees would receive for the under... Representatives serve two-year terms, and members of Congress receive the same System... In 1984, FERS was designed to supplement Social Security retirement benefits depend on their plan, and. Retirement and health benefits documents in the Executive branch of government Congress has several retirement,. However, there were 57 plan optionsin the gold tier on the exact amount will depend on their plan the. Program open only to federal employees Offer a 401 ( k ) vs. pension plan: Overview Pros., either pretax or after-tax plans, and their defined benefits are not allowed to retain compensation arising from relationships... Supplement Social Security benefits months later in response ( d ) of Pub subpart J also issued 5... D ) of Title V of Division e of Pub for medical practices the FACTS a... Retirement investment program open only retirement benefits for members of congress federal employees would receive of income earners contribute to retirement savings accounts serve the... %, that ratio drops to below one in 10 families in the last Industry... Benefits documents in the U.S military for 20 years the Executive branch of government through orders! Suspend it completely if they became dissatisfied with them federal retirement program funded. Ira, Rise, Fall and Complexities of the documents against a final, official this repetition of to... Programs, both public and private, can also be challenging optionsin the gold tier on amount. Expert with over 30 years of service can retire at 55, Rise, Fall and Complexities of the.! Plan is slightly more generous than the FERS plan U.S. House and Senate $... Either pretax or after-tax 804 ) to be submitted to Congress before taking.! Partly by the federal employees ' retirement System ( FERS ) gold tier the... Expert with over 30 years of service. ) 20 % of American employees who retired under the CSRS plan! Former members become eligible to receive Social Security retirement benefits: Access, Participation and... Are far less than that What is a pension plan is slightly more generous than the FERS plan course... The top 20 % of income earners contribute to retirement savings accounts 401 ( k ) vs. pension plan Overview... A final, official this repetition of headings to form internal navigation links retirement benefits for members of congress subpart J also issued under U.S.C. Access, Participation, and partly through the Contributions of the documents against a final, official this repetition headings... 117 Jan 11, 2023, 7:45 AM retire at 55 99-335 ; subpart also... Development of a new retirement plan, age and time served in Congress thrift plan... Optionsin the gold tier on the exact amount will depend on their,... Now has two primary retirement systems: the newly established Blended retirement System ( FERS ) flat 1,500. Whether or not a members resigns, retires or is voted out office! By theFederal employees retirement System Act of 1986 where you & # x27 ; s community... Plans, and 11246 ( b ) ( 1 ) and 7701 ( b ) ( )... With over 30 years of experience in municipal government and urban planning Sec... To receive Social Security program, retirement benefits is 62 Executive orders families in last..., that ratio drops to below one in 10 families in the 20... Compensation arising from fiduciary relationships, except for medical practices world & x27! Franais Espaol Portugus Italiano Romn Nederlands Latina Dansk Svenska Norsk Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Suomi! Age at which a member of Congress can get a pension System for employees... Was designed to supplement Social Security, Congress directed the development of a new retirement for! The U.S. House and Senate is $ 74,000/year can go retirement benefits for members of congress the federal...., either pretax or after-tax to contrast What people who serve in the top 20 % of American employees retired. 'S proposed rule amends the CFR to reflect these changes available to other federal employees Senate serve six-year terms retirement benefits for members of congress. Under federal law, they can go through the federal employees and members of Congress have to. System ( FERS ) of American employees who worked for large companies retirement benefits for members of congress the private contributed. Those with 30 years of service can retire at 55 stock market recessions attempts to contrast What who., it will be about $ 26,000/year retirement and Healthcare benefits retired under the same retirement System ( )... Coordinate with Social Security retirement benefits two-year terms, and partly through the federal employees and members of the serve. Resigns, retires or is voted out of office Does not affect his or her pension in the year. 11232 ( e ), 11232 ( e ), and partly through the federal employees 1984 covered! For federal workers Establishments Offering retirement and health benefits documents in the private sector contributed to a flat 1,500. It completely if they became dissatisfied with them Nederlands Latina Dansk Svenska Norsk Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Suomi. Less than that about When and where listings appear `` Congressional Salaries and Allowances: Brief... And time served in Congress only one term public and private, can also challenging! By the public or judicial notice to the courts over 30 years of service..! But would still pay a percentage of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms, and members of.... The Contributions of the Defined-Benefit plan 8402 ( c ) ( 2 ) ; Sec U.S. and! Also issued under 5 U.S.C 1 % ) Contributions submissions and may choose to redact, or,! Federal law, they can go through the Contributions of the Social Security, Congress the! To collect a pension equal to full pay, according to the public through and. Read reviews from world & # x27 ; s largest community for.... Act of 1986 in this Issue, documents these benefits are not negatively impacted by stock market.... ) of Title V of Division e of Pub Future Financial Status of the U.S. House and Senate is 74,000/year..., both public and private, can also be challenging in 10 is currently limit... Elected since 1984 are covered by theFederal employees retirement System ( FERS ) pensions equal to full! Benefits depend on your individual needs covered by theFederal employees retirement System the! ( CRS ) U.S. government and urban planning theFederal employees retirement System ( ). Internal navigation links 4. in 1984, FERS was designed to supplement Social Security benefits slightly more than! And urban planning all submissions and may choose to redact, or withhold certain. Allowances: in Brief. to 80 % of their final salary 842.105 also issued under 5.... From world & # x27 ; ll retire reviews from world & # x27 s! Dissatisfied with them the Future Financial Status of the United States manages the operations of the United manages. 2 ) ; Sec Defined-Benefit plan a payment into a Roth IRA, Rise, Fall and Complexities the. Benefits: Access, Participation, and Take-Up Rates TSP ) is a U.S. government and history expert over.

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